Cosmetics & Fragrance  

Cosmetics are as old as people who use them. The word "cosmetae" was first used to describe Roman slaves whose function was to bathe men and women in perfume. Anthropologists speculate that primitive perfumery began with the burning of gums and resins for incense. Richly scented plants were fused into animal and vegetable oils for ceremonial anointing and for pleasure. 
Compared to the later periods ancient people were a lot more at ease with their body and sexuality, perceived as a gift from gods. They were not used to marked gender differences; rather class and status were more distinguished. 

Cosmetics were an inherent part of Egyptian hygiene and health. As early as 10000 BC, men and women used scented oils and ointments to clean and soften their skin and mask body odor. Dyes and paints were used to color the skin, body and hair. They rouged their lips and cheeks with a clay called red ochre, ground and mixed with water, stained their nails with henna, and lined their eyes and eyebrows heavily with kohl. Kohl was a dark-colored powder made of crushed antimony, burnt almonds, lead, oxidized copper, ochre, ash, malachite, chrysocolla (a blue-green copper ore) or any combination thereof. It was applied with a small stick. The upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore poor eyesight and reduce eye infection. Kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid. 
Oils and creams were used for protection against the hot Egyptian sun and dry winds. Myrrh, thyme, marjoram, chamomile, lavender, lily, peppermint, rosemary, cedar, rose, aloe, olive oil, sesame oil and almond oil provided the basic ingredients of most perfumes that were used in religious ritual and embalming the dead. Makeup was stored in special jars that were kept in special makeup boxes. Women would carry their makeup boxes to parties and keep them under their chairs. Although men also wore makeup, they did not carry their makeup kits with them. 
The ancient Egyptians took great pride in their appearance and cleanliness. Most Egyptians bathed daily in the river or out of a water basin at home. Wealthy homes had a bathroom where servants would pour jugs of water over their master (equivalent to a modern day shower). People rubbed themselves daily with a oil that had soaked in scented wood. The mixture was left in a pot until the oil absorbed the wood scent. At parties, servants would place a cone of perfumed grease on the head of each guests. The grease had a cooling effect as it melted and ran down the faces of each guest. Everyone, regardless of age or gender wore makeup. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup. 
Anyone who worked for a Pharaoh had to be ritually pure and have fresh breath. Breath was freshened by chewing on pellets made of ground tamarisk leaves -- there is no evidence of toothbrushes or toothpaste. Bad breath and bad body odor was grounds for shame.

Beautiful smells were essential to the Egyptian belief that 'cleanliness is godliness.' Because "Smell" was incomprehensibly fundamental in Egyptian society, perfumery began as a secret art in Egypt that was perfected by 2500 BC. It was practiced by the priesthood in the temple of Denderah where pharmaceutical products were made. One of the temple walls shows a method of oil extraction and distillation that is still used by Egyptian farmers today. 

1000 BC Greece: If you were an upper class Greek you probably wore a wig to hide the fact that you seldom bathed. This was true of both genders. Again everybody wanted the "real white" look given by wearing chalk or white lead face powder. (No report on what the incidence of lead poisoning was like in ancient Greece). When women wanted a "little color" they chose ochre clays laced with red iron for lipstick. They spread their palms with reddish henna, supposedly to look younger. These practices roughly coincide with the perfection of soap.

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The Greeks invaded Egypt aware of the Egyptian mystification of oils but were interested mainly in the medical knowledge rather than the entire Egyptian spiritual epistemology. With 3,000 years worth of perfumery development under their belts, Egyptian priests were unwilling to divulge the spiritual intrigue of Egyptian oils. Under pressure from Alexander the Great, the priests released disinformation and half-truths to prevent the knowledge from falling into the hands of the inept. Greek sexual indulgence was deplorable to the Egyptians. From an Egyptian perspective, the Greeks wanted the oils for sexual practices, cosmetics, incense and medicines. One severe area of contention involved kyphi. 
Kyphi was created for the most sacred of purposes and the Greeks used it as an aphrodisiac. The Greeks were given to simplify things and the Romans took 'simplification' a step further. From this point forward, the original intention of Egyptian oil loses focus and becomes clouded. 
By the 7th century BC, Athens had developed into a mercantile center in which hundreds of perfumers set up shop. Trade was heavy in fragrances. These were sold in small, elaborately decorated ceramic pots, similar to the smaller jars still sold in Athens today. Socrates disapproved of perfume. He believed that it might blur the distinction between slaves (who smelled bad) and free men (who didn't). 
When Alexander the Great entered the tent of defeated King Darius, Alexander threw out the king's box of priceless ointments and perfumes. Ironically, after Alexander traveled extensively in Asia, he became so addicted to aromatics that he burned an Arabian incense by his throne constantly. He sent plant cuttings to his Athenian classmate in Athens from everywhere he traveled. His classmate used the cuttings to establish a botanical garden in Athens.

1500 BC The East: In China and Japan rice powder was used to paint faces pasty white. Eyebrows were shaved and plucked, and teeth were painted gold or black and Henna dyes, were used to stain hair and faces. In other words, teenagers looked exactly as they look today.

THE FAR EAST 
Distillation of essential oils and the use of aromatics progressed in the Far East as well. Like the Christian Gnostics, Chinese Taoists believed that extraction of a plant's fragrance represented the liberation of its soul. Like the Greeks, the Chinese used one word to represent perfume, incense and fragrance.
That word was heang. Heang was divided into six aesthetic moods: Tranquil, reclusive, luxurious, beautiful, refined or noble. The Chinese upper classes made lavish use of fragrance during the T'ang dynasties that began in the 7th century AD and continued until the end of the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. Huge, fragrant statues of Buddha were carved from camphor wood. Spectators at dances and other ceremonies could expect to be pelted with perfumed sachets. China imported jasmine-scented sesame oil from India, Persian rosewater via the silk route and, eventually, Indonesian aromatics-cloves, gum benzoin, ginger, nutmeg and patchouli-through India. The famous Materia Medica Pen Ts'ao was published in China during the 16th century. It discusses almost 2,000 herbs and contains a separate section on 20 essential oils. Jasmine was used as a general tonic; rose improved digestion, liver and blood; chamomile reduced headaches, dizziness and colds; ginger treated coughs and malaria. 
It was the Japanese who turned the use of incense into an art, even though incense didn't arrive in Japan until around 500 AD. By that time, the Japanese had perfected an effective distillation process. Special schools still teach the ancient art of kodo [perfumery]. From the Nara through the Kamakura Periods (710-1333), small lacquer cases containing perfumes hung from a clasp on the kimono. An incense-stick clock changed its scent as time passed, but also dropped a brass ball in case no one was paying attention. A more sophisticated clock announced the time according to the chimney from which the fragrant smoke issued. Geisha girls calculated the cost of their services according to how many sticks of incense had been consumed. 

EARLY TRADE IN COSMETICS
Trade routes to obtain fragrant goods were established throughout the Middle East well before 1700 BC and would be in use for the next 30 centuries-until the Portuguese discovered a way around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. The Old Testament describes one group of early traders: "a company of Ishmaelites [Arabs] from Gilead, bearing spices, balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt". As trade routes expanded, Africa, South Arabia and India began to supply spikenard and ginger to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean civilization. Phoenician merchants traded in Chinese camphor and Indian cinnamon, pepper and sandalwood; Syrians brought fragrant goods to Arabia. Myrrh and frankincense from Yemen reached the Mediterranean by 300 BC, by way of Persian traders. Traffic on the trade routes boomed.

COSMETICS CONCEPTS IN IRAN
Iranians arrived relatively late on the scene. At the beginning they copied the more established Assyrian, Babylonian and Egyptians but soon had their own styles. They used the cosmetics, ointments and fragrances popular in the area and by controlling the trade routes. The Greek conquest of Iran and the subsequent Seleucid dynasty popularized Greek style and culture in Iran and at the same time Iranians influenced Greek traditions. The Parthian dynasty popularized Iranian fashion styles all over the continent. Queen Zenoba the ruler of Palmyra (Syria) was very found of Iranian styles and is portrayed dressed in Parthian attire, despite the fact that Rome was the center of fashion and style at the time. 
Sassanian period was the peak of Iranian culture and art, but there is little information on what rich Sassanian women would use for cosmetics. Roman sources show that Persians used the same ingredients, with new ones added. Face powders were made from powdered chalk (sepeedab) or white lead. Eyeliner (sormeh) was made from soot or antimony powder. Saffron was also used to achieve other effects. Some women used black patches or beauty spots on their faces. Red for coloring the lips was obtained from ocher or ficus (a lichen-like plant). Ocher was also used to add color to the cheeks (sorkhab). Face creams were made of milk and flour; and lanolin (from unwashed sheep's wool) was used as a skin lotion. Rose water was used extensively and remained an important item all the way to the early 20th century.
The arts and techniques used to make cosmetics and perfumes remained more or less the same for thousands of years and only changed as of middle ages. Discovery of alcohol by the famous Iranian scientist Razi (9th century AD) introduced major changes. Alcohol base perfumes still in use to day replaced the old oil base formulas. A master of Greek, Persian and Indian sciences Ibn Sina (Avicinna, 980-1037) improved distillation and introduced new techniques that changed the science of chemistry forever. This famous Iranian alchemist, astronomer, philosopher, mathematician, physician and poet wrote the famous Canon of Medicine that was used for centuries as the standard medical text in Universities for centuries to come. Ibn Sina used essential oils extensively for medical and aromatic purposes. He wrote 100 books and one was devoted entirely to roses.
The Book of Perfume Chemistry and Distillation by Yakub al-Kindi (803-870) describes many essential oils, including imported Chinese camphor.

Islam introduced new codes of behavior for men and women with veiling and segregation of the sexes at the heart of the new ideology. Islamic restrictions on dress code and total veiling might have affected the appearance of women in public but historical accounts of lavish marriages between Caliphs and their beautiful brides attest to the diversity of designs, colors and fabrics worn indoors.
By the 13th century Damascus fabrics and designs were famous throughout the world and were imported all over the planet, in fact they became so famous that the name Damask still is used in the fabric and design world. The trade routes were fought over by all and eventually the Europeans monopolized the routes. Perfumes were in great demand and in fact shops selling herbs and spices were called Attari, atre means perfume, the most commonly used was made from rose and entire cities such as Ghamsar in Kashan were famous for their production of rose water (golab). Moshk a substance obtained from the dried blood of gazelles was amongst the most expensive perfumery of the time.
The medieval texts contain numerous instructions with respect to making all the usual make up items which means despite all restrictions imposed by the Islamic codes women still consumed such material en mass. The situation is comparable to present day Iran where cosmetic use and plastic surgery to enhance looks are booming right now. In fact introduction of polygamy (one man several wives), concubines, slaves and female war captives (masters had sexual rights over these) all under the same roof, would have resulted in tense competition amongst women for looking their best.
Men dyed their hair. On the other hand, the bride to be had all body hair removed. Once the eyebrows were plucked the girl had officially entered the kingdom of womanhood. In recent years with more traditional Iranian families moving to the West removing body hair has become an issue amongst parents and daughters. As far as the young girls are concerned these are common beauty and hygiene practices, while for their parents the act represents a major change and indicates becoming a woman without being married. Dyeing the hair by males is resented by the traditional families who regard such habits as womanly and conflict is created between boys and their parents.
Public baths were common in the area since ancient times and reached their peak with the Romans who were the highest consumers of water at the time due to their bathing system. Their bath houses had several hot and cold water pools, steam rooms, masseurs, gym, aromatherapy and major spas took advantage of Hot Springs and mineral waters. Others copied the same system and structure and similar systems have survived in the Turkish baths and old style Iranian public baths. The Pagan Romans had mixed baths with nogender restrictions. Christianity banned such practices, but how Iranians bathed is not known except for the Islamic period where segregation of sexes was imposed. Soaps were introduced rather late and were made from animal fat and despite the modern productions of soaps they are still available in bazaars and stores selling traditional herbs and spices. 
Hair was washed with the leaves from the Lotus tree (Sedre), it was crushed made into powder and it is still used in Iran with modern variations entering the markets. Classical Persian literature (all written by men) provides a very stylized and romantic picture of the perfect beauty. Long black curly hair, small mouth, long arched eyebrows, and large almond shaped eyes, small nose, extremely thin waste line and round face with beauty spots (Khal). Not being able to see females (except for a few related ones) the writers and the painters have used their imagination and created a very unrealistic picture of female beauty.

It is fortunate that media and mass communication were not available at the time otherwise Iranian women would have had a hard time achieving such ideals, as hard as it is for the modern women to try and look like the super models of today.
Cosmetic industry was totally changed by the introduction of the new sciences and huge corporate establishments have dominated the world markets. In Iran some of the old formulas were still in use till the beginning of the 20th century. Sepeedab a facial makeup, sorkhab to add red to the cheeks and lips are found in bazaars. Sormeh still is widely used as eyeliner in India and some remote corners of Iran. Minerals to cleanse face, skin and body such as roshoor have made their way to North America. Henna has become very popular all over the planet and henna paintings and designs once used by men and women in Africa, India and Middle East is currently fashionable in the West. Even hair removal by using thread (bandandazi) has made its way to North America and is practiced by Iranian beauticians in major Iranian centers in this continent.
Fashion and make-up code in Iran have a new function. Due to the restrictions imposed by the Islamic Republic, they are political statements and a voice of protest. When women are forced to look plain, avoid colors, makeup symbolizes resistance to the authorities. Ironically the makeup/fashion business along with plastic surgery is booming in Iran. The voice of protest has found a new paradoxical medium for expression.

100 AD Rome: Platus wrote "A woman without paint is like food without salt." These super-civilized ancestors put barley flour and butter on their pimples, and sheep's fat and blood on their fingernails for polish. Their crowning contribution to cosmetics was the practice of taking mud baths laced with crocodile excrement for who knows what purpose. Men frequently dyed their hair blond, supposedly to look like the young guy in the Dell Computer commercial. The practice of hair dying among men and women alike was curtailed, as dyes were so caustic as to cause existing hair to fall out. They had specially dedicated slaves to apply their cosmetics. 

After the defeat of the Greeks by the Romans, the original Egyptian intention suffered its worst beyond any reasonable recovery. The Romans were unabashedly hedonistic; Egyptian oils that were once used for sacred purposes became nothing more than sexual accoutrements in Rome. There was some dignity amended when the Romans discovered medicinal applications as well. Plagues were so rampant throughout Rome, that aromatic gums and resins were burned to repel demons and bad spirits. It was the Romans who gave us the actual word perfume and the rest of the surviving vernacular used today. "Per" is Latin for 'through,' and "fumum" means 'smoke;' the release of aromatic material through burning. Combine the act of burning incense with prayer (the closest they came to spirituality) and the gods in charge of disease (and other problems) were considered appeased. 

The Roman 'down to Earth' mentality did not embrace Greek complexity, much less Egyptian perfumery with its spiritual ramifications. The Greeks did not honor Egyptian spiritual intentions with regard to oils and perfumery and the Romans are almost completely out of context with the 'preserving' sentiment. In Egypt, magic, religion, medicine, pharmacology, cosmetics, and chemistry was combined into one science. This once integrated system evolved into separated, independent, totally unrelated sciences by the time Rome came into power. Rome oversimplified to the point of abuse and used oils so heavily that it caused serious financial problems. When Rome became Christianized, the new priesthood perceived the unbridled indulgence in sex, and the waste of money, as a main source of sin. By 1 AD, Rome was going through approximately 2,800 tons of imported frankincense and 550 tons of myrrh per year. In 54 AD, Emperor Nero spent the equivalent of $100,000 just to scent one party. He had carved ivory ceilings in his dining rooms that were fitted with concealed pipes that sprayed down mists of fragrant waters on guests below. He had panels that slid to one side, to shower guests with fresh rose petals. Perfume merchants were afforded the same status as doctors and the citizenry referred to their sweethearts as "my myrrh" and "my cinnamon," in much the same way that we say "honey" and "sweetie pie" today

. Rome was in power during the biblical New Testament. One passage of scripture refers to the frankincense and myrrh that was brought to the Christ child as having greater value than gold. Another biblical episode describes Judas Iscariot complaining about Mary Magdalene's anointing of Christ's feet with a costly spikenard. Although Rome was in power, the Greek civilization had not yet demised. The Greek word for Christ, 'Christos,' means "anointed," from the Greek word 'chriein,' "to anoint." Gnostic Christians from the 1st through the 4th century AD, held fragrance in high regard because their beliefs were deeply rooted in Egyptian philosophy: They sought release from the limitations of the material world and embraced the symbology of essential oils that represent the plant's soul. It is the Roman Catholic church in the 5th century AD that is responsible for the schism that we have today. 

Cosmetics in India
As Ayurveda the concept of beauty has an age-old origin. Ancient scriptures like Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Meghadootam of Kalidasa and many mythological epics bear references of cosmetics like: Tilak, Kajal (kohl), Alita and Agaru (Aquilaria agalbeha) that were used as body decoration and to create beauty spots on the chin and cheeks in the era ruled by gods and their deities. The famous depictions in the Ajanta and Ellora caves, Khajurao prove that not only women but men also adorned themselves with jewelry, scents and cosmetics. Enscripted in history is the Aryan period that witnessed the use of turmeric - haridra, (curcuma long, linn), saffron, alkanet, agaru, chlorophyll green from nettle plants and indigo for bodily-decorations apart from using Raktachandan (Pterocarpus Santalinus Linn), Chandan (Santalum Album) for beautification. Using Mehendi (henna) for dying hair in different colors and conditioning was also practiced in the olden times. Women in India did not use soap. Instead a turmeric germicidal cream treatment composed of gramflour or wheat husk mixed with milk was used. The wheat husk would remove dead cell tissue. 

People of ancient India used cosmetics irrespective of age and sex. They painted eyebrows, eyelashes, and chicks even to small children. Caste and religious factors and also occupation had an influence upon pictures drawn on the faces. Women painted eyebrows and eyes heavily using soot and Indian ink. They painted a beautiful spot (dot) on the forehead between the eyebrows ("tylaka") and affixed to its middle stones (modern bindy). Indians paid serious and great attention to fragrances. They burnt myrrh, resin of tropical plants, and incense, which was greatly appreciated (incense was called "divine", "incense of gods"). Pleasant and strong smells kept off evil spirits. Women's coiffures were adorned with perfumes as well, using whiff from burning coconuts, cinnamon, and clove. It was a tradition to paint the palms and soles with colored chalks and clays on holy occasions. Tatooing was widespread… 
Kama Sutra, that famous book of love, sex and beauty, written sometime between the 1st and 4th centuries, A.D., offers advice on beauty. In Chapter VII, Vatsyayana referring to "Personal Adornment, On Subjugating the Hearts of Others; and on Tonic Medicines" says: "Good looks, good qualities, youth and liberality are the chief and most natural means of making a person agreeable in the eyes of others. But in the absence of these a man or a woman must have to resort to artificial means, or to art, and the following are some recipes that may be found useful. An ointment made of the tabernamontana corornaria, the costus speciosus or arabicus, and the flacourtia cataphracta, can be used as an unguent of adornment. If a fine powder is made of the above plants, and applied to the wick of a lamp, which is made to burn with the oil of blue vitriol, the black pigment or lamp black produced, when applied to the eye-lashes, has the effect of making a person look lovely." 

The ancient Hebrews employed fragrance to consecrate their temples, altars, candles and priests. The book of Exodus (approximately 1,200 BC) provides a recipe for the Holy anointing oil given to Moses for the initiation of priests. It contains: Myrrh, cinnamon and calamus mixed with olive oil. Although the Mosaic Law decreed severe punishment to anyone who used Holy oils or incense in a secular fashion, some aromatics were less restricted. Two biblical references to perfume include Proverbs 27:9, "Ointment and perfume rejoice the heart," and Song of Solomon 1:13-14. By the late 5th century, Babylon was the principal market for the perfume trade. The Babylonians used cedar of Lebanon, cypress, pine, fir resin, myrtle, calamus and juniper extensively. When the Jews returned from captivity in Babylon, they brought back a heightened appreciation of fragrance, especially in the form of incense. 
In Ancient Russ cosmetics developed mainly from hygienic (sanitary) point of view. Healing qualities of herbs were used for bathing, ablution in springs, and application of steam bath. Tinctures of various herbs were in use: onion and garlic juices were used for healing bruises, acnes and pimples, diseases of the mucous membrane of the mouth, while extracts of cabbage, sour cream and buttermilk were used for bleaching the face. In ancient Russ, ordinary pagan women were like children of nature, and no matter how paradoxical it may seem, they used to wear heavy make-ups, as if they were painted by brush. Pagans were very knowledgeable of the healing qualities of various herbs, which were mainly used for cosmetics. For example, juice of raspberry, cherry were used for rouge and lipstick, beetroots were rubbed on the cheeks to produce the effect of rouge. To darken the eyes and eyebrows black soot or sometimes brown color was used. For whitening the skin wheat flour or chalk were applied. Onion peels dyed the hair in brown color, saffron and chamomile gave them a white-golden look. Red color was obtained from barbaris, magenta from young leaves of the apple tree and green from onion and nettle leaves, yellow from saffron, spinach and bark of â³ëüõè etc. They also knew the "nature" or mood of each color, their influence on the human being. With their help one could attract attention or the opposite.

There is also evidence that the Vikings liked to wear make-up as the Arab traveller Ibrahim Al-Tartushi in 950 A.D. wrote: "there is also an artificial make-up for the eyes, when they use it beauty never fades, on the contrary it increases in men and women as well". What he was observing was probably kohl. 

During the early Middle Ages the dominance of the church kept the use of cosmetics to a minimum. Cosmetics as a specialization began separating from medicine during the period 1200-1500. Noble ladies who wished to achieve the fashionable pale complexion applied white powder and water-soluble paint. Some even used leeches to drain the blood from their cheeks, which no doubt served a dual function as even the least attractive of the male species could be guaranteed a swoon at some point in the evening. 
In the 15th to 17th centuries, cosmetic literature was limited to the 'books of secrets' devoted not only to bodily embellishment but also to medicine. The first Pharmacopoeia of London, published in 1618, showed that the pharmacists had all the necessary equipment and skill to make and sell cosmetic products, but the increasingly stringent regulations governing their work kept most of them exclusively occupied with the compounding of medications. 

During the Italian Renaissance, women wore lead paint on their faces. The damage inflicted by the lead was unintentional - however arsenic face powder certainly was not: Aqua Toffana, named for creator Signora Toffana, was a face powder designed for women from rich families. The container directed women to visit the signora for proper usage instructions. During the visit, women would be instructed never to ingest the make-up, but to apply it to their cheeks when their husbands were around. Six hundred dead husbands (and many wealthy widows) later, Toffana was executed. 

By the reign of Elizabeth I of England, cosmetics were everywhere. Popular beauty treatments included rosemary water for the hair, elder flower ointment for the skin, sage to whiten teeth, bathing in wine, an egg and honey mask to smooth away wrinkles and geranium petal rouge. Other, more dangerous concoctions included white lead for the face, but also rouge made from mercuric sulphide, mercury sublimate for removing blemishes and a hair dye of lead, sulphur, quicklime and water designed to match the queen's natural red. Such preparations set the wheels in motion for the development of less fatal cosmetic products. 
They also serve as a milestone to the extraordinary lengths human beings will go to in the pursuit of beauty, though we may scoff at their apparent lunacy.

14th Century: Cosmetics were regarded as a health threat because many thought they would block proper circulation. In Elizabethan England dyed red hair was fashionable. Well to do women wore egg whites over their faces to create a whiter countenance and also slept with slices of raw beef on their faces to get rid of wrinkles.

15th -16th Centuries
In Europe, cosmetics were used only by the aristocracy. Italy and France became the chief centers of Cosmetics manufacturing. The French perfected the art of creating new fragrances and cosmetics, by blending ingredients. This laborious process gave birth not only to the means for producing modern cosmetics, but also for murder, as arsenic was sometimes used in face powder instead of lead, simply to kill the wearer faster. 

17th -18th Century: Cosmetics are now in use by all except the very poorest classes of society. 
Red rouge and lipstick were used extensively to suggest health, wealth and good mood. However….
According to Ragas and Kozlowski, Thomas Hall, an English pastor and author of the "Loathsomeness of Long Haire" (1653), led a movement declaring that face painting was "the devil's work" and that women who put brush to mouth were trying to "ensnare others and to kindle a fire and flame of lust in the hearts of those who cast their eyes upon them." In 1770, the British Parliament passed a law condemning lipstick, stating that "women found guilty of seducing men into matrimony by a cosmetic means could be tried for witchcraft."
Jessica Pallingston points out in her book, "Lipstick," that in the 1800s, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup impolite. It was viewed as vulgar and something that was worn by actors and prostitutes. Makeup took a backseat, and paleness became vogue for almost a century.

19th Century: France again. They develop chemical processes to replace fragrances made by the natural methods. Zinc oxide becomes widely used as a facial powder, replacing the more deadly mixtures of lead and copper previously used. Other poisonous substances are still used in eye shadow (lead and antimony sulfide), lip reddeners (mercuric sulfide), and to make one's eyes sparkle (belladonna, or deadly nightshade. Hey, it's important to look good!)

The 1920s in America: Cosmetics and fragrances are manufactured, and begin to be mass marketed. It was now okay for women to drop the Victorian image and dress up and use cosmetics, because it made money. The mass appeal and market for cosmetics was assured with the advent of the dime store/department store/chain stores which proliferated during this decade. 
1927: The chemical method for permanent waving is invented making it easier for many more women to have "naturally" wavy hair.
1930s: Movie stars begin to influence the style and use of makeup. Finally the "white look" starts to lose ground to the Hollywood "tan" look. In 1935 Max Factor of Hollywood introduces pancake makeup because of the adjustments required for photographing faces for film. Finally, women with food on their faces again.

Putting on a happy face during World War II, aided by the movie industry, gave lipstick and face powder respectability. It became the patriotic duty of female citizens to "put their face on."
1950s: We begin the modern era of the cosmetics business as we know it. Face powders and makeup, tanning oils and fragrances are mass marketed to an essentially "new" post war society that is tired of shortages. Popular sponsors of radio soap operas transfer their ads to the new medium of television.
1960s: As in the Fragrance industry, this is a time of change, not necessarily for the better. Purple lips and Egyptian eyeliner make a comeback, butterflies show up painted on virtually every part of the body. Let's not forget false eye lashes. Food makes a comeback as botanical, and vegetable (carrot, watermelon) ingredients combine to create a back to nature look, smell, and attitude.

1970s: Certain ingredients are banned from use in cosmetics to protect endangered species, and other species currently used as "lab rats" by some cosmetics manufacturers. This age of environmental concern fosters the start of many movements demanding disclosure from the cosmetics industry asking questions like "What did you do to those poor innocent puppies and bunnies to get this cosmetic product approved"? "What's in it, what does it do, where does it come from"? 
1980- Present: The key seems to be "diversity" as new looks, cosmetics and beauty aids come together to form an enormous industry of over $20 billion in sales annually. We are aware of cosmetics, fragrances, hair and skin products every day as we are heavily influenced by ads in print, and on television. Now we turn to the Internet, the retailer is changed to e-tailer, shortening the road between production and consumption.

The history of ideal female body shape, 1800s to present day
During the Victorian era, the ideal body type for women was plump, fleshy, and full-figured. They wore restrictive corsets, which made waists artificially tiny while accentuating the hips and buttocks. These corsets also caused a variety of health problems with breathing and digestion. 
At the start of the 1900s, slenderness became more fashionable. There was an increasing interest of women in athletics and physicians began to see body weight as a 'science' of calorie counting, 'ideal weights', and weigh-ins. At this time the physically perfect woman was 5'4" tall and weighed 10 stone. 

By the 1920s, the Victorian hourglass gave way to the thin flapper who bound her breasts to achieve a washboard profile. After World War I, active lifestyles added another dimension. Energy and vitality became central and body fat was perceived to contribute to inefficiency and was seen as a sign of self-indulgence. 
By the 1950s, a thin woman with a large bust line was considered most attractive. The voluptuous (size 16) Marilyn Monroe set a new standard for women who now needed to rebuild the curves they had previously tried to bind and restrain. 
By the 1960s, slenderness became the most important indicator of physical attractiveness following the arrival of model Twiggy. She weighed in at a shapeless six and a half stones, and had the figure of a prepubescent boy. 
Despite an American public with increasing body weights, between 1970 and 1990, there was an overall increased emphasis on weight loss and body shape in the content of a popular women's magazine, as well as a shift to using thinner less curvaceous models in their photo shoots. 
'Miss America' contestants were also found to be thinner over time, and winners of the pageant after 1970 consistently weighed less than the other contestants.

In 1975 top models and beauty queens weighed only 8% less than the average women. Today they weigh 23% less, a size achievable by less than 5% of today's female population. 
The 1980s beauty ideal remained slim but required a more toned and fit look. Women could no longer just 'diet' into the correct size; there was a new pressure to add exercise to achieve the toned look. 
The 1990s body ideal was very slim and large breasted, think Pamela Anderson, an almost impossible combination for most western women.

Today in our modern Western society, 'thin is in' and artificial means such as liposuction have sometimes been used to lessen the appearance of hips, buttocks, and fat in general. 
By examining early advertisements from each decade between 1920-1950 common themes and signs can be pinpointed. These images prove that relatively little has changed in the industry. All ads reveal the way in which women were stereotyped and show the continuity of cosmetics advertisements from the 1920s through the 1950s. 
As one may also note, youth and beauty are common elements of the ad and all the women models, whether they were celebrities or not, were white women with European features. The ads place the greatest emphasis on maintaining your youth, as if growing old naturally would be devastating. Being beautiful to men and keeping your man happy was also a common theme throughout these ads and fortunately, this is not an outright claim by many ads today. It is easy to see from advertisements such as this one that women were supposed to look only one particular way to be accepted by society and this way would be rather unattainable for most women. The future seems bleak for unless we reverse the trend and see big as beautiful once again, we will be pushing to look like animated anorexics with gravity defying breasts.

compiled by Iryna Maksimova